FromPearlToPacific

From 1856-1860, the Second Opium War was in progress. This war erupted primarily due to the Western powers’ desire to expand their trade privileges and force the legalization of the opium trade. The Arrow Incident was the trigger for this conflict. The Qing Dynasty still held resentment from the Unequal Treaties passed during the First Opium War. In October 1856, a group of Chinese officials went on board the British ship called “Arrow” in Canton. They investigated the ship, lowered the British flag, and arrested a few Chinese sailors. Following this event, the British retaliated with a warship along the Pearl River that attacked Canton. Consequently, trade was terminated. 

In Europe, the Crimean War (1853-1856) between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire, Great Britain, France, and later the Kingdom of Sardinia had just ended on March 30, 1856. France had the leisure to focus on its trade in Asia. This time, France joined as a major Western power alongside Great Britain against the Qing Dynasty to try to expand its commercial reach. Later, the United States and Russia would also get involved. 

On October 18, 1860, British and French troops attacked and destroyed the Summer Palace (圆明园). It was a retaliation by Westerners against the Qing troops’ capture and torture of European diplomats. A series of battles pushed for the signing of the Treaty of Tianjin (June 1858), and renegotiation of commercial benefits. From this treaty, 11 new trade ports were opened, with Tianjin added later on in the 1860 Convention of Beijing. Foreign embassies were allowed in Beijing. Despite the efforts of emperors and officials against opium, the importation of opium was still legalized. Furthermore, foreigners could freely navigate the Yangtze River. This also meant that foreign travelers and Christian missionaries were permitted in China without restrictions on their movements. The Treaty of Tianjin was signed with Great Britain, France, the United States, and Russia. It varied in length for each country.

The further erosion of the Qing Dynasty contributed to its eventual downfall. The evangelization efforts of Christian missionaries were also factors leading to the Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901), an anti-foreign and anti-imperialist violent movement in northern China.