Cultural Clashes: The Macartney and Amherst Embassies
In the eighteenth century, Westerners saw Chinese goods such as tea, porcelain, silk, and many other products as exotic. China, on the other hand, showed less preference for Western products such as clocks or tableware.
Photographs taken at the British Museum.
To try to expand trade in China, King George III sent Britain’s first embassy to China, led by Lord Macartney in 1793, called the Macartney Embassy. The goal was to negotiate trade conditions such as opening up a few more ports and establishing a British embassy in Beijing. Westerners were oblivious about the internal structure and geography of China at the time. As a result, they were curious and had great expectations for a civilization that they respected. The British embassy prepared multiple gifts in hopes of impressing Emperor Qianlong (乾隆, 1711-1799) and his court on this occasion. They were meant to represent the technological, industrial, and scientific advancements of Britain. Among them were planetariums, watches, and even a hot air balloon.
Despite Britain’s efforts, Emperor Qianlong was cautious at the time when dealing with foreigners. He turned down Lord Macartney’s proposal and was not impressed by the piling gifts. Frustrated and disappointed by this result, Lord Macartney left China.
This meeting left a historical impression of the “kowtow” culture. An audience with the emperor required visitors to “kowtow,” to kneel and touch one’s forehead to the ground, to demonstrate reverence and submissiveness. Lord Macartney refused to “kowtow” to Qianlong unless Chinese officials returned the favor to his own King George III’s portrait. This interaction not only showed cultural disagreement, but it also displayed the point of view of the two countries. The British believed that the Qing Dynasty was on equal footing with them. This embassy was a diplomatic visit. However, the Qing government did not give as much importance and respect to the British embassy as they believed should be shown. Leaving China empty-handed, Lord Macartney felt that the diplomatic mission had turned into a gift-giving session from a tributary state. Upon his return to Britain, Lord Macartney criticized China for being too prideful.
In 1816, a second embassy to China led by Lord Amherst, the Amherst Embassy, embarked to improve trade relations once more. Accompanying him was Sir George Thomas Staunton for his Chinese-speaking abilities, experience as an interpreter for the East India Company (EIC), and because he was also on the Macartney Embassy. Despite the preparations, this embassy failed to even reach the emperor. The reason behind this was once again due to the “kowtow” cultural discrepancies. According to information from Lord Macartney, Lord Amherst believed that British embassies did not “kowtow” the last time they came, so he refused the “kowtowing” ritual this time too. However, from the Jiaqing Emperor’s perspective, he believed that Macartney had kowtowed before. In reality, China’s long robes had concealed Macartney’s knees during Macartney’s visit with Emperor Qianlong, so the Chinese officials were not aware that he did not really kowtow but rather knelt on one knee only. Therefore, the Amherst Embassy was turned away and was unsuccessful in improving diplomatic relations once again.
