The Great Divergence: Internal Calamities of the Late Qing

In the nineteenth century, China experienced a wave of emigration. The Qing Dynasty faced both internal and external circumstances that resulted in the emigration of its people. Internally, during 1700-1850, with more advanced irrigation systems and the introduction of new crops from the Americas like corn, the Qing Dynasty experienced large-scale population growth. Although the Qing’s territory doubled through conquest in the north and west, adding more ethnic minorities to the Han majority, its population also more than doubled to approximately 430 million people. During this time period, most people survived through farming as the Qing had not yet industrialized. In fact, there is a historic term called the Great Divergence that explores the reason between Europe’s fast industrialization and economic growth against China’s decline. The Great Divergence, as theorized by scholars such as Samuel P. Huntington and Kenneth Pomeranz, argues that Europe was able to surpass China at the time because of the Industrial Revolution arising from an abundance of natural resources like coal, and access to a continuous supply of resources from the New World. The population boom meant that more farmers worked on smaller plots of land and had to pay taxes and rent, which became reasons why many people lived in poverty at the time.

Simultaneously, the Qing bureaucracy did not expand even while the population grew. An increasing number of officials became corrupt as they neglected their responsibilities and used their government positions for personal gain. For example, officials would go through the procedures for illicit graft to supplement their income. They neglected public infrastructure and disaster relief as money entered into their own pockets. A position in government symbolized higher status, and more young men competed for a limited number of spots.

Graph showing China's population growth throughout the years
Chart by Keenan Pepper, "Plot of population data in Demographics of China," 2020 via Wikimedia Commons. Used under CC BY-SA 4.0. — Graph showing China’s population growth throughout the years Chart by Keenan Pepper, “Plot of population data in Demographics of China,” 2020 via Wikimedia Commons. Used under CC BY-SA 4.0.

A photograph of a man working in the fields.
William Armstrong, "Working in a field," c. 1920–1929. Courtesy of William Armstrong Collection, Special Collections, Special Collections, University of Bristol Library (www.hpcbristol.net). — A photograph of a man working in the fields. William Armstrong, “Working in a field,” c. 1920–1929. Courtesy of William Armstrong Collection, Special Collections, Special Collections, University of Bristol Library (www.hpcbristol.net).

Despite the focus on China’s economic poverty during the nineteenth century, it actually was not as significantly impoverished as people believe it to be. Specifically, domestic trade in China and trade with foreigners were flourishing. To illustrate, Hankou, a commercial port that is one of the three towns making up current Wuhan city, was a massive tea importer and earned the nickname of Oriental Tea Port. At its peak, Hankou accounted for over 60% of Chinese tea exported to foreign countries, occasionally up to even 80%. Even though poverty from overpopulation impacted migration, it was not the sole factor, and has to be coupled with push factors.

A photograph of Butterflies and Swire ships at Hankou.
Photograph by G. Warren Swire. Image courtesy of John Swire & Sons Ltd. and Special Collections, University of Bristol Library (www.hpcbristol.net).

While poverty was one motivating factor leading to Chinese emigration, it is also essential to note rebellions that created instability within the Qing Empire, impacting its eventual downfall and the outflow of people. A notable example is the Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864). Hong Xiuquan (洪秀全，1813-1864), a scholar who failed multiple imperial examinations, believed that he was the younger brother of Jesus Christ after he came into contact with Christian pamphlets. With the opening of the Yangtze River, many Christian missionaries and converts entered the centers of China to spread their ideologies, which greatly eroded Qing officials’ power over their people and expanded foreign influences. Hong Xiuquan was convinced that he had the duty to get rid of demons in China and destroy Manchu influence. He was successful at first by taking control over Nanjing and switching the capital to Tianjing. Hong was able to establish the Taiping Tianguo (太平天国) or the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. Political unrest and chaos marked the period during his reign. However, in 1864 this rebellion was put to an end by the Qing imperial court with the aid of foreign countries such as Great Britain. An estimated death toll of more than twenty million people resulted from this rebellion.

An alleged illustration of Hong Xiuquan (洪秀全). Lithograph by Ford & West, "Alleged illustration of Hong Xiuquan," from the 1853 British text 'History of the insurrection in China' via University of Toronto / Wikimedia Commons.

An artistic depiction of the Qing imperial forces taking back Anqing City during the Taiping Rebellion. Wu Youru, "Regaining the Provincial City of Anqing," 1886. Courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.

Following the Opium War and Taiping Rebellion, the Qing Dynasty sought reform through a new movement named the Self-Strengthening Movement (1861-1895). The initiators of this reform were three government officials: Zeng Guofan (曾国藩, 1811- 1872), Zuo Zongtang (左宗棠, 1812-1885), and Li Hongzhang (李鸿章, 1823-1901). They hoped to introduce Western technology for the Qing Dynasty to consolidate their power. The standard narrative regarded this movement as a failure because the Qing attempted to incorporate Western technology even whilst desperately maintaining their traditional Confucian systems, but some historians saw it as a near success. An example is steamship networks. After the Opium War, foreign steamship companies dominated China’s market. To counter foreign erosion of Qing sovereignty, Li Hongzhang pushed for the establishment of the China Merchants Steam Navigation Company (CMSNCo) in 1872. At the same time, these steamship networks aided in the mobilization of troops. Qing’s adaptation of “barbarian tools” aided their understanding of “barbarian laws.” During the Qing Dynasty, the word “barbarian” or yi (夷) referred to Westerners. This is a result of China’s Sinocentric worldview in this time period, where people outside of the Qing Dynasty’s tributary system were perceived as uncivilized. This would lay the foundations for China’s interaction with international laws in modern society.

A photograph of Li Hongzhang (李鸿章) in 1879. Li Hongzhang, 1879. Courtesy of the Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. and Encyclopædia Britannica.

A photograph taken of Zuo Zongtang (左宗棠) in 1875. Adolf-Nikolay Erazmovich Boiarskii, "Governor-General Zuo Zongtang in Military Garments," Lanzhou, 1875. From the Russian Sosnovskii Expedition. Courtesy of the Thereza Christina Maria Collection, National Library of Brazil / Wikimedia Commons.

A portrait of Zeng Guofan (曾国藩). Zeng Guofan, detail of a portrait. Courtesy of the National Palace Museum, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China and Encyclopædia Britannica.

A photograph of the Nanjing Jinling Arsenal built by Li Hongzhang. John Thomson, "Nanjing Jinling Arsenal," 1872 via Wikimedia Commons. Public Domain.

A photograph of the China Merchants Steam Navigation Company in 1907. “China Merchants Steam Navigation Co. Building, The Bund, Shanghai,” 1907. From Arnold Wright, 'Twentieth Century Impressions of China' (1908). Courtesy of the Virtual Shanghai Project (Image ID: 16418).

Aside from economic and political instability, there were also push factors prompted by natural disasters such as famines and floods. The Northern Chinese Famine of 1876-1879 was caused by a global El Niño incident, creating the deadliest droughts of imperial China. Under normal circumstances, the Qing Empire was capable of intervention to prevent massive famine and destruction. Yet, a series of rebellions and revolts had depleted the fiscal reserves, and an imminent threat from Japanese imperialists cautioned Qing’s rulers and officials to choose how best to utilize any remaining resources. An estimated 9.5 to 13 million people died from this famine. Furthermore, Yellow River floods and earthquakes that accompanied these famines destabilized Qing rule. Groups of people invoked the Mandate of Heaven and questioned the emperor’s authenticity. In the late Qing Dynasty, Chinese nationalism emerged as an answer to these woes.

A map of the Northern Chinese Famine of 1876-1879.
“Map A: The Qing Empire and the North China Famine (1876-1879).” Originally published in Kathryn Edgerton-Tarpley, 'Tears from Iron' (2008). Courtesy of Graphic Services, Indiana University and DisasterHistory.org. — A map of the Northern Chinese Famine of 1876-1879. “Map A: The Qing Empire and the North China Famine (1876-1879).” Originally published in Kathryn Edgerton-Tarpley, ‘Tears from Iron’ (2008). Courtesy of Graphic Services, Indiana University and DisasterHistory.org.

Illustrations depicting the impacts of the famine.
Woodblock Print Illustration: “A Magistrate Doling Out Relief” & “Parents Selling Their Children.” Originally published in 'The Graphic' (London), July 6, 1878. From the collection of Pierre Fuller and DisasterHistory.org. — Illustrations depicting the impacts of the famine. Woodblock Print Illustration: “A Magistrate Doling Out Relief” & “Parents Selling Their Children.” Originally published in ‘The Graphic’ (London), July 6, 1878. From the collection of Pierre Fuller and DisasterHistory.org.

Hence, a combination of calamities significantly weakened the Qing Dynasty’s legitimacy and rule. When examining human history, it’s a foundational principle that when dynasties crumble, people will leave. These push factors are key to the migration of Chinese people into the United States.